The Rus were an early medieval group who gave their name to the Lands of RusSia, RutHenia, and BelArus. It is believed they were a group of VarAngIans, specifically NorseMen. A Chronicle compiled in about 1113 C says that the Rus relocated themselves "from over sea," first to NorthEastern Europe, creating an early polity that finally came under the leadership of RurIk.
RurIk (830-879) was a legendary VarAngIan chieftain who gained control of Ladoga (LowLand River in 862), and made it his capital and used it as a trade port. It became one of the most important trading ports of Eastern Europe (800-900). Merchant Vessels sailed from the Baltic Sea through Ladoga to NovGorod and then to Constantinople or the Caspian Sea. The Route was known as the Trade Route from the VarAngIans to the Greeks. An alternative way led down the Volga river along the Volga Trade route to the Khazar capital of Atil, and then to the Southern Shores of the Caspian Sea, all the way to Baghdad. The oldest Arabian Middle Age coin in Europe (Tellingly) was unearthed in Ladoga (LowLand River). RurIk's successors later moved to NovGoRod and then to Kiev, thus laying foundations of the powerful State of Kievan Rus (9th to the mid-13th century).
At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the North to the Black Sea in the South, and from the headwaters of the VisTula (the longest and largest River in Poland splitting the country in half) in the West to the Taman Peninsula (borders on the North with the Sea of Azov, on the West with the Strait of Kerch, on the South with the Black Sea) uniting the majority of East Slavic Tribes.
Kievan Rus begins with the rule of Prince Oleg (882-912), who extended his control from NovGoRod South along the Dnieper River (one of the major Rivers of Europe rising in Russia and flowing through Russia, BelArUs and Ukraine to the Black Sea) Valley in order to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east and moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev.
Sviatoslav I (died 972) achieved the 1st major expansion fighting a war of conquest against the Khazar Empire. The Khazars were a seminomadic Turkic people, who created what for its duration the most powerful polity to emerge from the breakup of the Western Turkish steppe Empire. Astride a major artery of commerce between Northern Europe and Northern Asia, the Khazar Empire became one of the foremost trading emporia of the Medieval World, commanding the Western Marches of the Silk Road and played a Key Commercial Role as a CrossRoad between China, the Middle East, and Kievan Rus. For some 3 centuries (650-965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the Eastern Crimea and the Northern Caucasus. Sviatoslav's decade-long reign was marked by rapid expansion through the conquest of the Khazars of the Pontic steppe and the invasion of the Balkans. In contrast to his mother's conversion to Christianity, Sviatoslav and his princes remained anti-Christians. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush, his carved largest state in Europe were not consolidated into a functioning empire, and his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his sons, which resulted in two of his three sons being killed.
Vladimir had been prince of NovGoRod when his father died. He was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his half-brother Yarapolk had murdered his older brother Oleg and taken control of Rus.
In Scandinavia, with the help of his relative, the Ruler of Norway, Vladimir assembled a Viking army and reconquered NovGoRod and Kiev from Yaropolik. As Prince of Kiev, Vladimir's most notable achievement was the Christianization of Kievan Rus, a process that began in 988, instead of the traditional idol-worship religion of the Slavs.
There are several huge royal funerary barrows named, Kurgans at the outskirts of Ladoga. One of them is said to be RurIk's grave, and another one -that of his successor Oleg.
Saturday, February 27, 2016
THE MONGOL EMPIRE.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of nomadic tribes in the Mongolia homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan, who was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206.
The Keraites were one of the 5 dominant Turco-Mongol tribal confederations (Khanates) in the Altai-Sayan Region during the 12th century. They first enter into history as the ruling faction of the Zubu Confederacy, a large alliance of tribes that dominated Mongolia during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their originally territory corresponded to much of what is now Mongolia, along the Upper Onon and KerUlen Rivers and along the Tula. They often fought with the LiAo Dynasty of Northern China, which controlled much of Mongolia at the time. At the height of its power, the Keraites Khanate was organized along the same lines as the NaiMans and other powerful steppe tribes of the day.
They arrived in Europe with the Mongol Invasion led by Batu Khan and MonGke Khan. A portion were settled in Carpathian Galicia as a result of a hostage exchange treaty between Batu Khan and the Catholic Rus'Prince Daniel of Carpathian Galicia in 1246.
They had converted to the Church of the East (Nestorianism) in the early 11th century. This doctrine emphasized the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus, and was advanced by Nestorius (386-450) Patriarch of Constantinopla from 428-431. His teachings were condemned as heretical leading to Nestorian Schism, in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.
The Keraites are first noted in Syriac Church records which mention them being absorbed into it around 1000CE by the Metropolitan Province of the Church between the 5th and 11th centuries. One Syrian diocese in Khorasan, in Iran, existed by the begining of the 5th century, though it was not assigned to a Metropolitan Province in 410. After establishing 5 Metropolitan Provinces in Mesopotamia, Canon XXI of the Synod of Isaac provided that "the Bishops of the more remote dioceses of Fars, of the Islands, of Beth Madaye, of Beth Raziqaye, and of the country of AbrAshAhr must accept the definition established in this Council at a later date." By implication, AbrAsh Ahr (NishApur) already had a bishop in this period.
The growing importance of the Merv Region for the "Church of the East" is attested by the appearance of several more Christian Centres during the late 5th and 6th century. In 893 Eliya of Damascus listed both Merv and Herat as Metropolitan Provinces.
Bt the 11th century East Syrian Cristianity was in decline. The surviving urban Christian communities in Khorasan, Iran, suffered a heavy blow at the start of the 13th century, when the cities of Merv, NishApur, and Herat were stormed by Genghis Khan in 1220. Their inhabitants were massacred.
They were defeated by Genghis Khan in 1203 and became influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire, and were gradually absorbed into the succeeding Turco-Mongolian Khanates during the 13th century.
Mongol legend traced the Clan back to 8 brothers with usually dark faces whose confederation they founded was called Kerait ("Black, Swarthy"). Kerait was the name of the leading brother's clan, while the others are recorded as JirKin, KonKant, SaKait, TumAut, AlBat. An incorporation of sub-clans may have led to the Turco-Mongol amalgamation from early time.
Kan is a title equal to the status of emperor. It is also translated as Khan of Khans, equivalent to King of Kings. Only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called Khagan, while other rulers are referred to as Khan.
The Keraites were one of the 5 dominant Turco-Mongol tribal confederations (Khanates) in the Altai-Sayan Region during the 12th century. They first enter into history as the ruling faction of the Zubu Confederacy, a large alliance of tribes that dominated Mongolia during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their originally territory corresponded to much of what is now Mongolia, along the Upper Onon and KerUlen Rivers and along the Tula. They often fought with the LiAo Dynasty of Northern China, which controlled much of Mongolia at the time. At the height of its power, the Keraites Khanate was organized along the same lines as the NaiMans and other powerful steppe tribes of the day.
They arrived in Europe with the Mongol Invasion led by Batu Khan and MonGke Khan. A portion were settled in Carpathian Galicia as a result of a hostage exchange treaty between Batu Khan and the Catholic Rus'Prince Daniel of Carpathian Galicia in 1246.
They had converted to the Church of the East (Nestorianism) in the early 11th century. This doctrine emphasized the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus, and was advanced by Nestorius (386-450) Patriarch of Constantinopla from 428-431. His teachings were condemned as heretical leading to Nestorian Schism, in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.
The Keraites are first noted in Syriac Church records which mention them being absorbed into it around 1000CE by the Metropolitan Province of the Church between the 5th and 11th centuries. One Syrian diocese in Khorasan, in Iran, existed by the begining of the 5th century, though it was not assigned to a Metropolitan Province in 410. After establishing 5 Metropolitan Provinces in Mesopotamia, Canon XXI of the Synod of Isaac provided that "the Bishops of the more remote dioceses of Fars, of the Islands, of Beth Madaye, of Beth Raziqaye, and of the country of AbrAshAhr must accept the definition established in this Council at a later date." By implication, AbrAsh Ahr (NishApur) already had a bishop in this period.
The growing importance of the Merv Region for the "Church of the East" is attested by the appearance of several more Christian Centres during the late 5th and 6th century. In 893 Eliya of Damascus listed both Merv and Herat as Metropolitan Provinces.
Bt the 11th century East Syrian Cristianity was in decline. The surviving urban Christian communities in Khorasan, Iran, suffered a heavy blow at the start of the 13th century, when the cities of Merv, NishApur, and Herat were stormed by Genghis Khan in 1220. Their inhabitants were massacred.
They were defeated by Genghis Khan in 1203 and became influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire, and were gradually absorbed into the succeeding Turco-Mongolian Khanates during the 13th century.
Mongol legend traced the Clan back to 8 brothers with usually dark faces whose confederation they founded was called Kerait ("Black, Swarthy"). Kerait was the name of the leading brother's clan, while the others are recorded as JirKin, KonKant, SaKait, TumAut, AlBat. An incorporation of sub-clans may have led to the Turco-Mongol amalgamation from early time.
Kan is a title equal to the status of emperor. It is also translated as Khan of Khans, equivalent to King of Kings. Only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called Khagan, while other rulers are referred to as Khan.
The Mongol Empire began to politically split with the Toluid Civil War in 1260-1264 and the death of Kublai Khan in 1294.
Monday, February 15, 2016
THE ANCIENT EGYPT
The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC, when human population became sedentary; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC. The importance of Water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply provided an initial economy that triggered the creation of permanent Villages.
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient NorthEastern Africa, concentrated along the Lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile soil produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.
The rise of Dynastic Egypt (known as KHEMET) in the Nile Valley occurred with the Unification of Upper and lower Egypt in approximately 3,200 BC, and ended at around 525 BC.
From around 7000 to 3000 BC the climate of the Sahara was much moister, offering good grazing land even in areas that are now very arid. By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the SouthWestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle. Natural Climate change after 3000 BC led to progressive arid-fication of the Region. As a result of these changes, around 2500 BC early tribes from the Sahara were forced to concentrate along the Nile River. Domesticated animals had already been imported from Asia between 7500 and 4000 BC and evidence of Pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara is found in the 7th millennium BC.
The 1st cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk, by the 31st century BC.
Memphis was the ancient capital during the Old Kingdom, founded by the Pharaoh Menes, and remained as an important city throughout ancient Mediterranean history. Its ancient name was Inbu- Hedj meaning "the White Walls." It occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile Delta. The city was under the protection of the god Ptah, the patron of craftsmen. Its great temple, Hut-ka-Ptah, meaning "Enclosure of the Ka of Ptha," was one of the most prominent structures. The history of Memphis is closely linked to that of the country itself. Because of its size, the city has had several names during its history of almost 4 millennia. Diplomatic records found on different sites have detailed the correspondence between the City and the various contemporary Empires in the mediterranean, Near East, and Africa. This include the Amarna Letters, which detail Trade conducted between Memphis and the sovereigns of Babylon and the various city-states of Lebanon. Its eventual downfall was due to the loss of its economic significance, following the rise of coastal Alexandria. Its religious significance also diminished after the abandonment of ancient religion. Its ruins are located 20 km South of Giza.
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the use of Mortar by 4000 BC, Quarrying, Surveying and Construction Techniques that supported the building of monumental tallest ancient pyramids , temples, and obelisks; a System of Mathematics, a practical and effective System of Medicine (early forms of surgery and barge transport), Irrigation Systems and Agricultural Production Techniques, the first known Planked Boats, Surface Vitrification using sintered-quartz ceramic creating a bright lustre of various colors (Egyptian Faience as early as 3500 BC), and Glass Technology. Also knew forms of Literature, and the earliest known Peace Treaty, made with the Hittites.
With resources to spare, the administration sponsored Mineral Exploitation of the Valley and surrounding Desert Regions, the early development of an independent Writing System, the organization of Collective Construction and Agricultural Projects, Trade with the surrounding Regions, and a Military intended to defeat Foreign Enemies and assert Egyptian Dominance. Motivating and Organizing these activities was a Bureaucracy of Elite Scribes, Religious Leaders, and Administrators under the Control of a Pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian People in the Context of an Elaborated System of Religious Beliefs.
The Egyptian Religion was a Complex System of Polytheistic Beliefs and Rituals. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with many deities who were present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of Nature. The practice was centered on the Pharaoh, the King, who was the possessor of the power by virtue of his position. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the power and was obligated to sustain the entities from which the power came from, through Rituals and Offerings so that they could maintain "Order" in the universe. The State dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian Rituals and to the construction of the Temples. They believed in the Afterlife and Funerary Practices. They made great efforts to ensure the Survival of their Souls after death, providing Tombs, Grave Goods, and Offerings to preserve the Bodies and Spirits of the deceased. The details of the beliefs changed over time as the importance of particular powers through specific entities rose and declined, and their intricate relationship shifted. At various times, certain Entities became preeminent over the others, including the Sun god Ra, the Creator god Amun, qand the Mother goddess Isis. For a brief period, in the theology promulgated by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, a single God, the Aten, replaced the pantheon.
Their Religion and Mythology left behind many writings and monuments, along with significant influences on Ancient and Modern Cultures.
Egypt reached the pinnacle of his power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period where it rivaled the Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire, and Mitanni Empire, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the 3rd Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt.
In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman Province.
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient NorthEastern Africa, concentrated along the Lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile soil produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.
The rise of Dynastic Egypt (known as KHEMET) in the Nile Valley occurred with the Unification of Upper and lower Egypt in approximately 3,200 BC, and ended at around 525 BC.
From around 7000 to 3000 BC the climate of the Sahara was much moister, offering good grazing land even in areas that are now very arid. By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the SouthWestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle. Natural Climate change after 3000 BC led to progressive arid-fication of the Region. As a result of these changes, around 2500 BC early tribes from the Sahara were forced to concentrate along the Nile River. Domesticated animals had already been imported from Asia between 7500 and 4000 BC and evidence of Pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara is found in the 7th millennium BC.
The 1st cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk, by the 31st century BC.
Memphis was the ancient capital during the Old Kingdom, founded by the Pharaoh Menes, and remained as an important city throughout ancient Mediterranean history. Its ancient name was Inbu- Hedj meaning "the White Walls." It occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile Delta. The city was under the protection of the god Ptah, the patron of craftsmen. Its great temple, Hut-ka-Ptah, meaning "Enclosure of the Ka of Ptha," was one of the most prominent structures. The history of Memphis is closely linked to that of the country itself. Because of its size, the city has had several names during its history of almost 4 millennia. Diplomatic records found on different sites have detailed the correspondence between the City and the various contemporary Empires in the mediterranean, Near East, and Africa. This include the Amarna Letters, which detail Trade conducted between Memphis and the sovereigns of Babylon and the various city-states of Lebanon. Its eventual downfall was due to the loss of its economic significance, following the rise of coastal Alexandria. Its religious significance also diminished after the abandonment of ancient religion. Its ruins are located 20 km South of Giza.
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the use of Mortar by 4000 BC, Quarrying, Surveying and Construction Techniques that supported the building of monumental tallest ancient pyramids , temples, and obelisks; a System of Mathematics, a practical and effective System of Medicine (early forms of surgery and barge transport), Irrigation Systems and Agricultural Production Techniques, the first known Planked Boats, Surface Vitrification using sintered-quartz ceramic creating a bright lustre of various colors (Egyptian Faience as early as 3500 BC), and Glass Technology. Also knew forms of Literature, and the earliest known Peace Treaty, made with the Hittites.
With resources to spare, the administration sponsored Mineral Exploitation of the Valley and surrounding Desert Regions, the early development of an independent Writing System, the organization of Collective Construction and Agricultural Projects, Trade with the surrounding Regions, and a Military intended to defeat Foreign Enemies and assert Egyptian Dominance. Motivating and Organizing these activities was a Bureaucracy of Elite Scribes, Religious Leaders, and Administrators under the Control of a Pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian People in the Context of an Elaborated System of Religious Beliefs.
The Egyptian Religion was a Complex System of Polytheistic Beliefs and Rituals. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with many deities who were present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of Nature. The practice was centered on the Pharaoh, the King, who was the possessor of the power by virtue of his position. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the power and was obligated to sustain the entities from which the power came from, through Rituals and Offerings so that they could maintain "Order" in the universe. The State dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian Rituals and to the construction of the Temples. They believed in the Afterlife and Funerary Practices. They made great efforts to ensure the Survival of their Souls after death, providing Tombs, Grave Goods, and Offerings to preserve the Bodies and Spirits of the deceased. The details of the beliefs changed over time as the importance of particular powers through specific entities rose and declined, and their intricate relationship shifted. At various times, certain Entities became preeminent over the others, including the Sun god Ra, the Creator god Amun, qand the Mother goddess Isis. For a brief period, in the theology promulgated by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, a single God, the Aten, replaced the pantheon.
Their Religion and Mythology left behind many writings and monuments, along with significant influences on Ancient and Modern Cultures.
Egypt reached the pinnacle of his power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period where it rivaled the Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire, and Mitanni Empire, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the 3rd Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt.
In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman Province.
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